Occurrence, Fate, and Related Health Risks of PFAS in Raw and Produced Drinking Water

ABSTRACT: This study investigates human exposure to per- andpolyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) via drinking water and evaluateshuman health risks. An analytical method for 56 target PFAS,including ultrashort-chain (C2−C3) and branched isomers, wasdeveloped. The limit of detection (LOD) ranged from 0.009 to 0.1ng/L, except for trifluoroacetic-acid and perfluoropropanoic-acidwith higher LODs of 35 and 0.24 ng/L, respectively. The methodwas applied to raw and produced drinking water from 18 Dutchlocations, including groundwater or surface water as source, andapplied various treatment processes. Ultrashort-chain (300 to 1100ng/L) followed by the group of perfluoroalkyl-carboxylic-acids(PFCA, ≥C4) (0.4 to 95.1 ng/L) were dominant. PFCA and perfluoroalkyl-sulfonic-acid (≥C4), including precursors, showedsignificantly higher levels in drinking water produced from surface water. However, no significant difference was found for ultrashortPFAS, indicating the need for groundwater protection. Negative removal of PFAS occasionally observed for advanced treatmentindicates desorption and/or degradation of precursors. The proportion of branched isomers was higher in raw and produceddrinking water as compared to industrial production. Drinking water produced from surface water, except for a few locations, exceednon-binding provisional guideline values proposed; however, all produced drinking waters met the recent soon-to-be bindingdrinking-water-directive requirements.