An engineered M2 macrophage-derived exosomes-loaded electrospun biomimetic periosteum promotes cell recruitment, immunoregulation, and angiogenesis in bone regeneration

studies reveal that the biomimetic periosteum promotes new bone formation in large bone defect repair by inducing M2 macrophage polarization, endogenous BMSC recruitment, osteogenic differentiation, and vascularization. This research provides valuable insights into the development of a multifunctional biomimetic periosteum for bone regeneration.