Immunological biomarkers of aging

Abstract The immune system has long been recognized for its critical role in the elimination of pathogens and the development of autoimmune diseases, but recent evidence demonstrates that it also contributes to noncommunicable diseases associated with biological aging processes, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, neurodegeneration, and frailty. This review examines immunological biomarkers of aging, focusing on how the immune system evolves with age and its impact on health and disease. It discusses the historical development of immunological assessments, technological advancements, and the creation of novel biomarkers and models to study immune aging. We also explore the clinical implications of immune aging, such as increased susceptibility to infectious diseases, poor vaccine responses, and a higher incidence of noncommunicable diseases. In summary, we provide a comprehensive overview of current research, highlight the clinical relevance of immune aging, and identify gaps in knowledge that require further investigation.