Synergistic engineering of organoids and organ-on-a-chip systems through microengineering and sensor integration for advanced biomedical research

Microphysiological systems, including organoids, organ-on-a-chip (OoC) platforms, and their integrated forms, are increasingly used to model human physiology in vitro. Organoids contribute self-organized cellular diversity and tissue architecture, whereas OoC platforms provide controlled geometry, perfusion, mechanical cues, and access to real-time measurements. Their integration into organoid-on-a-chip and multi-tissue systems can improve physiological relevance for efficacy evaluation, quality control, mechanistic studies, and personalized medicine. This review examines organoid generation, organ-specific OoC models, hybrid systems, 3D bioprinting, acoustic bioassembly, and sensor integration. It also discusses the principal barriers to translation, including scalability, reproducibility, standardization, and the responsible use of artificial intelligence and multi-omics data. Together, these advances position synergistically engineered microphysiological systems as promising translational tools, provided that performance is validated against standardized, reproducible, and clinically relevant benchmarks.