The development of x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy: 1900–1960

Abstract A review of the historical development of the technique of X-ray photo-electron spectroscopy is presented, from the discovery of the photoelectric effect by Hertz in 1887 to the early stages of the present day revitalization of the technique by K. Siegbahn and his associates, that is, up to 1960. It is shown that the technique has undergone an almost continuous process of development and utilization, with a small number of able and dedicated workers providing major contributions and stimuli at various times throughout this long period.