Copper ionophore complex ES-Cu synergizes with quercetin to target FDX1, promote cuproptosis, and reverse lenvatinib resistance in hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Lenvatinib resistance remains a major challenge in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) treatment, highlighting the need for novel therapeutic strategies. Cuproptosis, a copper-dependent form of cell death, has been increasingly implicated in cancer progression. Quercetin, a naturally occurring bioactive flavonol known to modulate mitochondrial metabolism and multiple oncogenic signaling pathways, has emerged as a potential sensitizer. This study aimed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which lenvatinib-resistant HCC cells evade copper-induced cell death and to evaluate whether quercetin enhances ES-Cu-induced cuproptosis by targeting FDX1 and reprogramming mitochondrial metabolism. Integrated methodologies including bioinformatics analysis, clinical specimen profiling, qRT-PCR, cell proliferation assays, intracellular copper quantification, and Western blot were employed to investigate (1) the insensitivityof lenvatinib-resistant hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) to cuproptosis but target FDX1 can reverse it(2) the potential of quercetin-ES-Cu combinatorial treatment to reverse drug resistance. Furthermore, subcutaneous xenograft models, mitochondrial OCR measurements, mitochondrial enzyme activity/functional assays, and bio-quercetin administration analyses (immunofluorescence, co-immunoprecipitation) were systematically implemented in both in vitro and in vivo settings to delineate the FDX1-mediated cuproptosis activation mechanism and validate therapeutic efficacy. Lenvatinib-resistant HCC cells displayed downregulation of cuproptosis-related genes (FDX1, DLAT) and impaired copper accumulation. Quercetin bind with FDX1, enhanced mitochondrial OCR, and synergistically increased intracellular copper accumulation with ES-Cu, leading to lipoylated protein aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and copper-induced cell death. In vivo, quercetin plus ES-Cu significantly suppressed tumor growth without evident toxicity. This study elucidates the mechanisms by which lenvatinib-resistant HCC cells evade cuproptosis, highlighting the therapeutic potential of quercetin and ES-Cu combination treatment as a novel strategy to overcome lenvatinib resistance in HCC.