Loneliness and social media

Abstract After defining five possible pathways to increase belonging through social media use, this narrative review summarizes the research on social media and loneliness. The association between social media use and loneliness is examined at the trait level and change in loneliness over time. Next, the use of social media during the COVID pandemic and its use to increase belonging at the momentary or daily level are summarized. Following, the use of social media to cope with loneliness or ostracism as well as the social compensation and enhancement hypotheses are examined. The evidence suggests social media use is weakly related to trait loneliness, explains little variance in loneliness relative to other predictors, and fails to explain a change in loneliness over time. There is no evidence it causes loneliness. On any given day, however, social media use may be used to promote belongingness but may not be a good means of coping with loneliness in the long term. This narrative review concludes that future research should firmly situate the study of loneliness and social media in the context of social interactions and relationships by carefully examining when and for whom it is beneficial or harmful.