Recent advances in NIR-II emitting nanomaterials: design and biomedical applications of lanthanide complexes and functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs)

, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes) and metal nanoparticles have been explored to enhance stability and bioavailability. Despite their promising potential, challenges such as long-term biocompatibility, clearance mechanisms, and precise targeting remain key hurdles in clinical translation. Future research should focus on overcoming these limitations by developing next-generation MSN-based nanocomposites, such as MSN-graphene oxide, MSN-fullerenes, MSN-carbon nanotubes, MSN-quantum dots, and MSN-metal nanoparticles. These advancements will pave the way for improved therapeutic efficacy and broader biomedical applications.