A comprehensive review on hydrogen production, storage, and applications

The transformation from combustion-based to renewable energy technologies is of paramount importance due to the rapid depletion of fossil fuels and the dramatic increase in atmospheric CO₂ levels resulting from growing global energy demands. To achieve the Paris Agreement's long-term goal of carbon neutrality by 2050, the full implementation of clean and sustainable energy sources is essential. Consequently, there is an urgent demand for zero or low-carbon fuels with high energy density that can produce electricity and heat, power vehicles, and support global trade. This review presents the global motivation to reduce carbon dioxide by utilizing hydrogen technology, which is key to meeting future energy demands. It discusses the basic properties of hydrogen and its application in both prototype and large-scale efficient technologies. Hydrogen is a clean fuel and a versatile energy carrier; when used in fuel cells or combustion devices, the final product is water vapor. Hydrogen gas production methods are reviewed across renewable and non-renewable sources, with reaction processes categorized as green, blue, grey, black, pink, and turquoise, depending on the reaction pathway and CO₂ emissions management. This review covers the applications of hydrogen technology in petroleum refining, chemical and metrological production, hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs), backup power generation, and its use in transportation, space, and aeronautics. It assesses physical and material-based hydrogen storage methods, evaluating their feasibility, performance, and safety, and comparing HFCEVs with battery and gasoline vehicles from environmental and economic perspectives. Finally, the prospects and challenges associated with hydrogen production, handling, storage, transportation, and safety are also discussed.