Lead-free perovskites: growth, properties, and applications

Lead halide perovskites have attracted extensive attention in recent years because of their excellent photoelectronic properties, such as high absorption coefficients, carrier mobilities, defect tolerances, and photoluminescence efficiencies. However, a key issue hindering their commercial application is the toxicity of lead. Replacing lead with other nontoxic elements is a promising solution to this problem. Considering their atomic radii, relative atomic masses, and electron arrangements, perovskites based on Sn, Bi, Sb, and other elements instead of Pb have been widely synthesized. Here, we summarized the growth methods, photoelectric properties, and device applications of these lead-free perovskites. First, we introduced several common growth methods for lead-free perovskites, including solution methods, solid-state reaction, and chemical vapor deposition methods. Second, we discussed the photoelectric properties and methods for optimizing these properties of lead-free perovskites with different structure dimensions. Finally, the applications of lead-free perovskites in solar cells, light-emitting diodes, and X-ray detectors were examined. This review also provides suggestions for future research on lead-free perovskites.