Ghosts of YouTube: Rules and conventions in Japanese YouTube content creation outsourcing

Abstract Employment relationships have become a crucial component of the influencer industry in Japan. The professionalization of content production has become particularly visible on YouTube, where influencers and brands frequently hire intermediary creators to assist in or outsource the production of videos. Screenwriters and editors work behind the scenes to support the constant stream of “fresh” content required to gain visibility. While playing a vital role in the production process, in Japan, these intermediary creators are too often underpaid and uncredited. As a result, their labor is precarious and invisible. Adapting the idea of ghostwriting, this paper articulates the concept of “ghostuber” to refer to these creative workers. Drawing from interviews with Japanese content creators and participant observation in YouTube video production, the paper considers how market norms and legal regulations shape the experience of Japanese ghostubers. Ghostubers do not view their position as unfair. Rather, assuming an entrepreneurial view of the self and engaging in forms of hope labor, they accept their precarious status. Moreover, due to industry conventions, lack of legal awareness, and a romantic vision of authorship that frames influencers as unique owners of their content, ghostubers do not consider attribution a necessary right of creators.