Photocatalytic degradation of diclofenac using hybrid MIL‐53(Al)@TiO2 and MIL‐53(Al)@ZnO catalysts

Abstract In this work, TiO 2 and ZnO were incorporated successfully into a MIL‐53(Al) metal–organic framework (MOF) to form nanocomposites via a facile post‐modification technique. The hybrid MIL‐53(Al)@TiO 2 and MIL‐53(Al)@ZnO were characterized by several characterization tests. The X‐ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier‐transform infrared (FTIR), and field‐emission scanning electron microscopy (FE‐SEM) analyses showed evidence of the successful incorporation of TiO 2 and ZnO within the MIL‐53(Al) framework. The thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) analysis demonstrated the excellent thermal stability of MIL‐53(Al)@TiO 2 and MIL‐53(Al)@ZnO, while diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) determined the direct optical band gaps of MIL‐53(Al)@ZnO and MIL‐53(Al)@TiO 2 to be 3.24 and 3.34 eV, respectively. The composites were also tested for the photocatalytic degradation of diclofenac (DCF) as a micropollutant. The DCF degradation efficiency of the photocatalysts was ranked in the following order: MIL‐53(Al)@TiO 2 > MIL‐53(Al) > TiO 2 > ZnO > MIL‐53(Al)@ZnO. The incorporation of TiO 2 enhanced the optical properties of MIL‐53 (Al), which was confirmed with the superior photodegradation efficiency of MIL‐53(Al)@TiO 2 (>85% in 2 h) as compared to the pristine MIL‐53(Al) (around 80% in 2 h). The improvement in the photodegradation of the hybrid‐MOF is mostly associated with the possible dual function of the adsorption and photodegradation mechanisms. The reusability of MIL‐53(Al) and its composites was inspected over 3 cycles of photodegradation experiments with DCF. The photocatalytic activity of MIL‐53(Al)@TiO 2 remained unchanged (>90%), while for MIL‐53(Al) and MIL‐53(Al)@ZnO a slight drop was observed over three cyclic degradation experiments. Fluorescence measurements revealed that the hydroxyl radical is an important reactive oxygen species produced by all the photocatalysts that aid in the photodegradation of DCF. Furthermore, the kinetic modelling of the photoreaction identified a second‐order kinetics for all catalysts. Experiments with scavengers showed that hydroxyl radicals played a major role in the photocatalytic process, and it was found that only 2 h of treatment was sufficient to obtain a considerable chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction of 58%.