A Comprehensive Review of Neonicotinoids: Recent Developments in Electrochemical Detection

A class of pesticides known as neonicotinoids is commonly used in agriculture, but the pesticides are harmful to bees, other pollinators, and humans. To detect neonicotinoids in the environment, sensitive and selective methods are needed. The conventional techniques of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) are effective, but expensive and time-consuming. A promising alternative to real-time detection of neonicotinoids is electrochemical analysis, since it is relatively inexpensive and can be performed instantly. Electrochemical sensors are primarily sensitive to the surface of the working electrode. Various modifiers are employed to enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of the electrochemical sensor. This review article focuses on recent advances in neonicotinoid detection technologies using metal/metal oxide nanoparticles, graphene/graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, metal-organic frameworks, and conducting polymers. The detailed descriptions of the developed electrochemical sensors, including sensitivity, selectivity, detection limits, sample complexity, and field applicability, are presented. The article also discussed current challenges and future prospects for electrochemical methods for real-time monitoring.