The landscape of genitourinary cancer vaccines: clinical advances and future opportunities

Through different platforms (peptides, DNA, RNA, dendritic cells, etc.), therapeutic cancer vaccines can provoke or strengthen anti-tumor immunity with the assistance of cytokines, chemokines as well as other adjuvants to therefore prevent the deterioration of cancer and eradicate tumor cells. Only a limited number of therapeutic genitourinary cancer vaccines have received regulatory approval, indicating that there are still many critical challenges for the clinical translation of cancer vaccines, which mainly focus on finding effective antigens, immunogenic platforms and suitable combinational clinical strategies.