Gibberellins, brassinolide, and ethylene signaling were involved in flower differentiation and development in Nelumbo nucifera

Hormones play important roles in vegetative and reproductive processes; however, the regulatory roles of hormones in Nelumbo nucifera (Lotus) growth and development are unclear. In this study, nine types of endogenous hormones, including gibberellins (GA1, GA3, and GA4), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), brassinolide (BR), ethylene (ETH), jasmonic acid (JA), abscisic acid (ABA), and zeatin (ZT) were detected in dormant shoot tips, vegetative shoot tips, developing leaf buds, and developing flower buds of lotus. The results indicated that GA, ETH, and BR signaling can promote vegetative and reproductive development of lotus. GA signaling regulates plant height and stimulates flower bud differentiation. GA levels were the highest in the flower buds; exogenous GA3+4 increased plant height by approximately 90%, increased flower quantity by nearly 40%, and advanced flowering by 4 d. Suppressing GA biosynthesis using paclobutrazol decreased plant height and flower quantity by 38% and 87.1%, respectively, and delayed flowering by 15.6 d. ETH signaling has positive regulatory effects on vegetative growth and flower development. The ETH concentration in the developing leaf buds was at least 50% higher than that in other samples. Ethephon spraying led to remarkable increases in plant height and leaf thickness and extended the flowering duration. BR signaling acts as a growth promoter during vegetative and reproductive development in lotus. The highest BR levels were detected in the vegetative shoot tips. External application of 28-epihomobrassinolide resulted in growth-promoting phenotypes including longer scapes, thicker leaves, and prolonged flowering.