Does the timing of intake matter? Association between caffeine intake and depression: Evidence from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Recent research suggests that caffeine intake is associated with a reduced risk of depression. However, the relationship between caffeine intake during different periods of the day and depression is still unclear. This cross-sectional study analyzed noninstitutionalized adults from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, with a weighted representation of approximately 218 million US adults. Covariate-adjusted sample-weighted regressions were used to examine associations between caffeine intake and depression in different periods. Caffeine intake during non-early morning periods (outside of 5:00–8:00 AM) is associated with a high prevalence of depression (unadjusted OR: 1.08, 95%CI: 1.05–1.11; adjusted OR: 1.03, 95 % CI: 1.00–1.06). Participants who consumed caffeine in the early morning (5:00–8:00 AM) had a lower prevalence of depression compared to participants who did not consume caffeine in the early morning (unadjusted OR: 0.75, 95%CI: 0.67–0.85; adjusted OR: 0.86, 95 % CI: 0.75–0.99). Cross-sectional study could not determine the temporal association; patients with depression in this study were not clinically diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder. Among US adults, early morning caffeine consumers had a lower prevalence of depression than non-consumers; caffeine intake during non-early morning periods is associated with a high prevalence of depression. Our results may suggest the importance of caffeine intake time for depression.