Do Virtual Influencers Need Self-Disclosure? Differential Effects on Parasocial Interaction Between Human and Virtual Influencers and the Moderating Role of Openness

This study investigates whether virtual influencers (VIs) generate advertising effects comparable with those of human influencers (HIs) by examining the roles of self-disclosure and parasocial interaction (PSI). We conducted an online experiment employing a four-condition, between-subject design in which the type of social media influencer (SMI) and self-disclosure level were manipulated. The results indicate that VIs elicited weaker PSI than HIs and that self-disclosure exerted a weaker influence under VI exposure than under HI exposure. A moderated mediation analysis further revealed that SMI type indirectly affected attitudes toward the SMI and advertising through PSI, and differences in PSI between HIs and VIs were attenuated among consumers with high levels of openness. Finally, this study discusses the theoretical and managerial implications of the findings and proposes directions for future research.