A modular process-based techno-economic and environmental modeling framework for Lithium-ion battery recycling

The rapid growth of lithium-ion battery deployment in transportation and energy-storage applications will generate substantial volumes of end-of-life batteries, making efficient recycling increasingly important. This study presents a process-based techno-economic and life cycle assessment framework for lithium-ion battery recycling via a defined pyrolysis-assisted mechanical pretreatment–hydrometallurgical route. The model explicitly links equipment sizing, operating conditions, and material and energy flows to recycling costs and climate change impacts. Four representative NMC chemistries (NMC111, NMC532, NMC622, and NMC811), two plant capacities (2000 and 25,000 t/yr), and two regional contexts (Norway and China) are evaluated. Recycling cost ranges from 1.13 to 1.22 €/kg in China and 1.87–1.99 €/kg in Norway at 2000 t/yr, decreasing to 0.98–1.04 €/kg and 1.48–1.54 €/kg, respectively, at 25,000 t/yr. Climate change impacts range from 0.93 to 0.96 kg CO 2 -eq/kg in Norway and 2.99–3.45 kg CO 2 -eq/kg in China at the smaller scale, with lower values at 25,000 t/yr. Acid leaching and air-based material separation are dominant cost and environmental hotspots, while sensitivity analysis identifies reagent cost, yield, and labor-related assumptions as the main economic drivers, and power demand as the main environmental driver. Overall, the results show that direct recycling cost and climate change impacts are influenced more strongly by plant scale and regional background conditions than by NMC chemistry, while pack-level design remains an important determinant of recycling performance.