Ginsenoside Rk1 improves endothelial function in diabetes through activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors

Ginsenoside Rk1, one kind of ginsenoside, is a minor ginsenoside found in Panax ginseng and used as traditional Chinese medicine for centuries. It exhibits anti-tumor and anti-aggregation effects. However, little research has been done on its effect on endothelial function. This study investigated whether ginsenoside Rk1 improved endothelial dysfunction in diabetes and the underlying mechanisms in vivo and in vitro. Male C57BL/6 mice were fed with a 12 week high-fat diet (60% kcal % fat), whereas treatment groups were orally administered with ginsenoside Rk1 (10 and 20 mg per kg per day) in the last 4 weeks. Aortas isolated from C57BL/6 mice were induced by high glucose (HG; 30 mM) and co-treated with or without ginsenoside Rk1 (1 and 10 μM) for 48 h ex vivo. Moreover, primary rat aortic endothelial cells (RAECs) were cultured and stimulated by HG (44 mM) to mimic hyperglycemia, with or without the co-treatment of ginsenoside Rk1 (10 μM) for 48 h. Endothelium-dependent relaxations of mouse aortas were damaged with elevated oxidative stress and downregulation of three isoforms of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), PPAR-α, PPAR-β/δ, and PPAR-γ, as well as endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) phosphorylation due to HG or high-fat diet stimulation, which also existed in RAECs. However, after the treatment with ginsenoside Rk1, these impairments were all ameliorated significantly. Moreover, the vaso-protective and anti-oxidative effects of ginsenoside Rk1 were abolished by PPAR antagonists (GSK0660, GW9662 or GW6471). In conclusion, this study reveals that ginsenoside Rk1 ameliorates endothelial dysfunction and suppresses oxidative stress in diabetic vasculature through activating the PPAR/eNOS pathway.