Chemokines with CXC motif and their receptors in neuroendocrine neoplasms

Neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) are challenging rare neoplasms not only for diagnosis but also for management. Immunotherapy has become a promising approach for NENs and clinical trials in phase I–II have been undertaken to evaluate the safety and efficacy of this treatment strategy. In fact, the NEN microenvironment is characterized by immunosuppressive cell composition and both tumor-associated neutrophils and macrophages are present. According to recent studies, chemokines with the CXC motif and their receptors participate in NEN progression and generate signals, which favor their immune escape. In this review, we comprehensively summarized the direct and indirect action of CXC chemokines and their receptors on NEN progression and specific immune cells’ action. In addition, we highlighted the potential value of chemokines with the CXC motif and their receptors in tracking the progression of NENs and therapy of patients with NENs.