Valuable Yet Costly: Developing a Motivational Cost Scale in Physical Education

Purpose: Although situated expectancy-value theory recognizes cost as crucial, research on its domain-specific nature in physical education remains limited. Grounded in situated expectancy-value theory, this study aimed to develop a motivational cost scale for physical education. Methods : With a total sample of N = 1,013 students, the study was conducted in two phases. Phase 1 tested the cost scale’s reliability and validity through exploratory ( n = 260) and confirmatory factor analyses ( n = 289). In Phase 2, five hypothesized models integrating cost, expectancy, and value were compared ( n = 464), and multiple regression analysis was used to evaluate predictive validity. Results: Factor analyses supported a second-order four-factor structure—physical and physiological, psychological, opportunity, and social costs. Model comparisons showed that treating cost as an independent, multidimensional, and hierarchical construct provided the most robust structure. Discussion/Conclusion: The scale demonstrates sound psychometric properties, indicating that expectancy, value, and cost are mutually complementary, independent, and interrelated in measuring motivation in physical education.