GmBES1-1 dampens the activity of GmNSP1/2 to mediate brassinosteroid inhibition of nodulation in soybean

Soybean (Glycine max) forms root nodules to house rhizobial bacteria for biological nitrogen fixation. The development of root nodules is intricately regulated by endogenous and exogenous cues. The phytohormones brassinosteroids (BRs) have been shown to negatively regulate nodulation in soybean, but the underlying genetic and molecular mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here, we performed transcriptomic analyses and revealed that BR signaling negatively regulates nodulation factor (NF) signaling. We found that BR signaling inhibits nodulation through its signaling component GmBES1-1 by dampening NF signaling and nodule formation. In addition, GmBES1-1 can directly interact with both GmNSP1 and GmNSP2 to inhibit their interaction and the DNA-binding activity of GmNSP1. Furthermore, BR-induced nuclear accumulation of GmBES1-1 is essential for inhibiting nodulation. Taken together, our results demonstrate that regulation of GmBES1-1 subcellular localization by BRs plays a key role in the legume-rhizobium symbiosis and plant development, indicating a crosstalk mechanism between phytohormone and symbiosis signaling pathways.