Quantitative Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Turbid Media: A Practical Solution to the Problem of Scattering and Absorption

The presence of practically unavoidable scatterers and background absorbers in turbid media such as biological tissue or cell suspensions can significantly distort the shape and intensity of fluorescence spectra of fluorophores and, hence, greatly hinder the in situ quantitative determination of fluorophores in turbid media. In this contribution, a quantitative fluorescence model (QFM) was proposed to explicitly model the effects of the scattering and absorption on fluorescence measurements. On the basis of the proposed model, a calibration strategy was developed to remove the detrimental effects of scattering and absorption and, hence, realize accurate quantitative analysis of fluorophores in turbid media. A proof-of-concept model system, the determination of free Ca(2+) in turbid media using Fura-2, was utilized to evaluate the performance of the proposed method. Experimental results showed that QFM can provide quite precise concentration predictions for free Ca(2+) in turbid media with an average relative error of about 7%, probably the best results ever achieved for turbid media without the use of advanced optical technologies. QFM has not only good performance but also simplicity of implementation. It does not require characterization of the light scattering properties of turbid media, provided that the light scattering and absorption properties of the test samples are reasonably close to those of the calibration samples. QFM can be developed and extended in many application areas such as ratiometric fluorescent sensors for quantitative live cell imaging.