Do lonely people seek robot companionship? A comparative examination of the Loneliness–Robot anthropomorphism link in the United States and China

Anthropomorphism can provide psychological closeness and compensate for loneliness; therefore, it has been assumed that lonely people are more likely to anthropomorphize robots and will exhibit preferences for anthropomorphic robots. However, to date, few robust studies have tested these intuitions. To fill this gap, we examined the link between loneliness and robot anthropomorphism. Across four cross-cultural studies (2 preregistered; N = 1590), we found counter-intuitive results. More specifically, lonely people were less likely to anthropomorphize robots (Study 1) and showed less preference for anthropomorphic robots (Study 2); these effects existed in Chinese but not American cultures. Further, observers rated consumers who purchased robots with high (versus low) levels of anthropomorphism as less lonely; this effect was more pronounced in Chinese culture than in American culture (Study 3). Further, a growth anthropomorphism orientation—beliefs that people anthropomorphize nonhuman agents out of sincere interest in these agents rather than to counteract loneliness—accounted for these cultural differences (Study 4). These findings enrich the current understanding of anthropomorphism from a cross-cultural perspective and have practical implications for robotic designs.