Cation reactivity inhibits perovskite degradation in efficient and stable solar modules

Perovskite solar modules (PSMs) show outstanding power conversion efficiencies (PCEs), but long-term operational stability remains problematic. We show that incorporating N,N -dimethylmethyleneiminium chloride into the perovskite precursor solution formed dimethylammonium cation and that previously unobserved methyl tetrahydrotriazinium ([MTTZ] + ) cation effectively improved perovskite film. The in situ formation of [MTTZ] + cation increased the formation energy of iodine vacancies and enhanced the migration energy barrier of iodide and cesium ions, which suppressed nonradiative recombination, thermal decomposition, and phase segregation processes. The optimized PSMs achieved a record (certified) PCE of 23.2% with an aperture area of 27.2 cm 2 , with a stabilized PCE of 23.0%. The encapsulated PSM retained 87.0% of its initial PCE after ~1900 hours of maximum power point tracking at 85°C and 85% relative humidity under 1.0-sun illumination.