CapSense-Flex: A Self-Powered Capillary Lab-on-Chip for Universal Electrochemical Biosensing

) with <12% signal loss relative to PBS standards. Each capillary chip is fabricated in <7 min at <$0.40 material cost and supports plug-and-replace electrode modules for alternative MIP targets. By decoupling capillary transport from binding kinetics and eliminating external pumps or wash steps, CapSense-Flex establishes a universal architecture for scalable MIP-based biosensing across handheld, wearable, and decentralized diagnostic formats.