Nanoparticle-based detection of foodborne pathogens: Addressing matrix challenges, advances, and future perspectives in food safety

Foodborne diseases pose significant public health and economic challenges worldwide, with conventional pathogen detection methods, such as culture-based assays and PCR, often hindered by the complex food matrix in categories like dairy, seafood, fresh produce, and processed foods. These matrices, containing fats, proteins, biofilms, and salts, interfere with detection accuracy, reducing the sensitivity and robustness of traditional approaches. Nanoparticle-based detection systems have emerged as transformative tools to overcome these challenges, offering enhanced sensitivity, rapid detection, and adaptability to real-time monitoring. Gold, silver, magnetic, polymeric, and hybrid nanoparticles leverage their unique optical, magnetic, and functional properties to facilitate specific pathogen identification while mitigating food matrix interference. Recent advancements include nanoparticle-functionalized biosensors, magnetic separation platforms, and smart detection systems integrated with IoT and blockchain for traceability and real-time contamination alerts. However, challenges such as high production costs, regulatory gaps, and scalability hinder their full-scale adoption. This review critically examines matrix-specific adaptations of nanoparticle-based detection technologies, their comparative advantages over traditional methods, and their integration with smart technologies to ensure food safety. Future directions emphasize interdisciplinary collaboration, eco-friendly synthesis, and regulatory frameworks to address commercialization hurdles and revolutionize pathogen detection across the global food industry.