Tolerances of North China leopard and their prey distributions to primary road disturbances driven by habitat spatial heterogeneity

Roads, as man-made features nested within landscapes, have extensive impacts on wildlife survival. However, how the heterogeneous distribution of some habitat factors along roads affects the tolerance of wildlife’s spatial distribution relative to roads has not been deeply understood. Here, we used a segmented regression model to evaluate thresholds of primary road proximity of North China leopard ( Panthera pardus fontanierii ) and prey species based on camera trap data in Tieqiaoshan Nature Reserve, Shanxi Province, China. Then, we employed geographically weighted regression (GWR) models to reveal the role of spatial heterogeneity of habitat factors in animal tolerance to road disturbances. Various types of habitat factors exert different effects on the spatial distribution of animals. Higher elevations and more sheltered habitats prompt wildlife to tolerate road disturbances, whereas wildlife’s avoidance of other non-primary roads and settlements decreases its tolerance of the primary road. Furthermore, the heterogeneous spatial distribution of prey is an important factor driving the distribution of the leopard. Our findings highlight that accounting for spatial heterogeneity enables a more comprehensive understanding of wildlife tolerance mechanisms to road disturbances. Capturing species distribution at finer scales in a spatial non-stationary environment guides conservation managers in determining effective landscape modifications to mitigate road impacts on wildlife.