From laboratory to gigafactory: sodium-ion batteries in the era of energy manufacturing transformation

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are emerging as a commercially viable complement to lithium-ion batteries, driven by advances in materials engineering, manufacturing scalability, and the growing demand for cost-effective, resource-secure energy storage technologies. This review critically examines the scientific and industrial progress that is accelerating the commercialization of SIBs, with particular emphasis on the techno-economic factors shaping their market adoption. Recent developments in cathode materials, including layered oxides, polyanionic compounds, and Prussian blue analogue, are evaluated alongside advances in hard carbon (HC) anodes, electrode manufacturing, and cell engineering. The compatibility of SIB production with existing lithium-ion manufacturing infrastructure is discussed as a major advantage for rapid industrial deployment, supported by large-scale investments from leading manufacturers such as Contemporary Amperex Technology Co., Limited (CATL), Build Your Dreams (BYD), Gotion High-Tech, and EVE Energy. Commercialization pathways, emerging application sectors, and remaining technical challenges including energy density limitations, hard carbon consistency, recycling economics, and raw material price volatility are critically assessed. A comparative evaluation with lithium iron phosphate (LFP), nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC), and lead-acid batteries highlights the complementary role of SIBs within the future battery landscape. Overall, this review demonstrates that, while sodium-ion batteries are unlikely to replace lithium-ion technologies across all applications, their combination of low cost, intrinsic safety, abundant raw materials, and manufacturing compatibility positions them as a key enabling technology for stationary energy storage, cost-sensitive electric mobility, and resilient global battery supply chains.