A current review of empirical procedures of remote sensing in inland and near-coastal transitional waters

The empirical approach of remote sensing has a proven capability to provide timely and accurate information on inland and near-coastal transitional waters. This article gives a thorough review of empirical algorithms for quantitatively estimating a variety of parameters from space-borne, airborne and in situ remote sensors in inland and transitional waters, including chlorophyll-a, total suspended solids, Secchi disk depth (z SD), turbidity, absorption by coloured dissolved organic matter (a CDOM) and other parameters, for example, phycocyanin. Current remote-sensing instruments are also reviewed. The theoretical basis of the empirical algorithms is given using fundamental bio-optical theory of the inherent optical properties (IOPs). Bands, band ratios and band arithmetic algorithms that could be used to produce common biogeophysical products for inland/transitional waters are identified. The article discusses the potential role that empirical algorithms could play alongside more advanced model-based algorithms in the future of water remote sensing, especially for near real-time operational monitoring systems. The article aims to describe the current status of empirical remote sensing in inland and near-coastal transitional waters and provide a useful reference to workers. It does not cover ‘inversion’ algorithms.