Green recovery of rare earth elements under sustainability and low carbon: A review of current challenges and opportunities

In order to cope with climate change and implement low-carbon development, the energy structure cannot be separated from the production of clean energy. Rare earth elements are widely used in the fields of electronics, metallurgy, energy, and environmental protection due to their physical and chemical properties. On the one hand, the accumulation of electronic waste has a large impact on the environment due to the widespread use of rare earth devices. On the other hand, with the continuous mining of mineral resources, the amount of rare earth tailings is increasing, which is not in line with the development of sustainable circular economy. Therefore, the green recycling of REEs is of great importance to the environment and sustainable development. This paper assesses the low carbon and sustainability of the recovery of rare earth elements from secondary resources by hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical and bio-metallurgical processes in terms of socio-economic factors, including their advantages and disadvantages and how losses can be minimized. In addition, it provides a fuller exploration path and prospect for achieving green recycling and sustainable application of recycling in the future.