Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) Incorporated into Iron Particles Promoted the Formation of Disinfection Byproducts under Drinking Water Conditions

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is an emerging persistent organic pollutant that is frequently detected throughout the drinking water supply system. Here, we first found that PFOA could significantly increase the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in unlined iron pipes (UIPs) during the distribution process. The increased DBPs were not due to the reaction of PFOA itself with free chlorine, but the in situ formed Fe-PFOA complex played a key role. Notably, PFOA could enhance iron release from UIPs and was greatly incorporated into the iron particles to form Fe-PFOA complex. The •OH generated by the Fe-PFOA heterogeneous reaction could break large dissolved organic matter into small molecules that had higher reactivity with chlorine. In addition, DBP precursors with more aromatic structures were favorable for forming strong Fe-π interactions with Fe-PFOA complex, resulting in more •OH for the formation of aromatic DBPs. The cytotoxicity test showed that the viability of cells exposed to DBPs from UIPs with 100 ng/L PFOA was 46.9%, while that without PFOA was 67.91%. Overall, this study provided a new perspective on the risk of PFOA, with a focus not on PFOA itself but on its potential to promote DBP-associated toxicity in iron-based drinking water distribution pipes.