Critical review of drying processes for electrode materials: Bridging fundamentals and advanced manufacturing for energy storage devices

Drying electrode materials is a critical yet complex step in the fabrication of lithium-ion and emerging energy storage devices, directly impacting their structural integrity, electrochemical performance, and manufacturing scalability. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the physical and chemical fundamentals governing electrode drying, including heat and mass transfer, binder migration, and stress-induced defect formation. Various drying technologies such as convective, infrared, microwave, vacuum, freeze-drying, and hybrid approaches, are systematically evaluated in terms of drying mechanisms, energy efficiency, industrial readiness, and their influence on electrode microstructure. The review highlights how advanced modeling and simulation frameworks, ranging from analytical and continuum models to machine learning-driven digital twins, are being leveraged to optimize drying profiles and predict defect formation. The complex process–structure–performance relationships that link drying conditions to electrode porosity, adhesion, and electrochemical performance are critically assessed. Key industrial considerations, including energy consumption, solvent recovery, real-time process control, and environmental compliance, are discussed with emphasis on the challenges of scaling up to high-speed continuous production lines. Finally, emerging trends such as solvent-free electrode fabrication, smart drying controls, integration of green solvents, and circular economy strategies are explored. The article concludes by identifying critical research gaps and proposing a roadmap to guide future innovations in sustainable and intelligent electrode drying for next-generation battery technologies.