Addressing the heterogeneity of resilience scales: a systematic review and development of a unified resilience construct within a standardized resilience framework

Resilience research is hindered by inconsistent definitions, operationalizations, and assessments. This study systematically reviewed resilience measurement tools (i.e. resilience scales) published between 2013 and 2024 and developed a unified construct within a standardized framework of resilience factors. Twenty-four scales were identified and evaluated for psychometric quality. Overall quality was mixed: only 11 of 24 scales reached at least two thirds of possible points. Criterion Validity and Content Validity performed best (21 and 19 scales at maximum), whereas Stability was weakest, with only four scales scoring at all. A conceptual analysis of scale items yielded a Resilience Factor Framework, comprising six psychological attribute factors (commitment, challenge, control, self-efficacy, optimism, positive self-image), three process factors (anticipation, reactivity, adaptability), and one outcome factor (positive outcome). A unified resilience construct was defined by integrating these factors. The framework provides a comprehensive structure which integrates divergent tools, promoting consistency in resilience research and clinical application.