Bis(2-ethylhexyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrabromophthalate Induces Neurodevelopmental Toxicity through the Gadd45b–MKK7–p21 Pathway: Cell Cycle Arrest and Mitochondrial Dysfunction

Bis(2-ethylhexyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrabromophthalate (TBPH) is a novel brominated flame retardant increasingly detected in environmental and biological matrices, yet its neurotoxic mechanisms remain undefined. Here, we reveal a critical growth arrest and Gadd45b-MKK7-p21 signaling pathway that couples cell-cycle arrest with mitochondrial dysfunction to drive TBPH neurotoxicity in zebrafish. Behavioral, molecular, and transcriptomic analyses demonstrated that environmentally relevant TBPH exposure (0.1-10 μg/L) triggered G1-phase arrest via upregulation of Gadd45b and activation of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21, concomitant with mitochondrial dysfunction characterized by decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP production and elevated oxidative stress. These molecular alterations led to neurodegeneration, neurotransmitter dysregulation, and behavioral hyperactivity in zebrafish. Pharmacological blockade of Gadd45b-MKK7 with the selective inhibitor d-tetrapeptides (DTP3) restored cell-cycle progression, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neurodevelopmental outcomes, establishing a causal link between this signaling pathway and TBPH-induced neurodevelopmental toxicity. Our findings reveal that mitochondria-associated cell cycle arrest is a convergent target and identify the Gadd45b-MKK7-p21 signaling pathway as a critical regulator of TBPH-induced neurotoxicity, providing a mechanistic framework for ecological health risk assessment of similar environmental toxicants.