Washback and the classroom: the implications for teaching and learning of studies of washback from exams

This paper reviews the empirical studies of washback from external exams and tests that have been carried out in the field of English language teaching. It aims to do so from the point of view of the teacher so as to provide teachers with a clearer idea of the roles they can play and the decisions they can make concerning washback. The paper begins by defining its use of the term ‘washback’, then goes on to identify the areas in which washback has been noted by the studies. It next examines what intervening factors the studies have indicated influence whether and to what degree washback occurs. This examination highlights how much washback cannot be considered an automatic or direct effect of exams. Finally, the paper pulls together suggestions from the washback literature on how to teach towards exams and indicates areas of classroom practice that these could be applied to. The paper shows how crucial a role the teacher plays in determining types and intensity of washback, and how much teachers can therefore become agents for promoting positive washback.