Revisiting the multifaceted phytochemical: an updated review on therapeutic potential, pharmaceutical formulations, pre-clinical studies, and clinical trials of Zingerone

Zingerone (ZiN), a polyphenolic alkanone derived from ginger (Zingiber officinale), is a natural bioactive compound with a broad spectrum of pharmacological properties. This review explores its multifaceted therapeutic applications, including antivirulence, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and various other biological properties, as well as its potential application in diverse avenues. We provide an extensive overview of ZiN's phytochemistry, safety, metabolism, toxicity, bioavailability, and its potential as a promising candidate for drug development. Further, we shed light on the recent advancements made towards formulating different drug delivery systems, including nanoparticles and liposomal formulations, that have significantly improved the therapeutic efficacy and pharmacokinetics of ZiN. Moreover, we present findings from preclinical studies (in vitro and in vivo), that establish and validate its protective efficacy against human disorders/diseases like diabetes, chronic inflammation, acute diarrhoea, malignant cancers, radiation- and chemical-induced oxidative stress, and bacterial infections by enlisting the currently-known biomolecular targets of ZiN. Besides, this review outlines clinical trials conducted with ZiN and its derivatives, discussing the primary obstacles that have limited its application in mainstream medicine and providing future perspectives. Overall, this review presents an updated insight into the biological attributes and pharmacological prospects of ZiN, comprehensively establishing its multifarious nature as a potent drug.