A comparative study on the effects of mind-wandering, distraction, and fatigue on driving performance and physiological responses

licenced drivers completed repeated simulated driving tasks, during which behavioural performance and physiological indicators were recorded. Distinct state-specific profiles emerged. Distraction was associated with elevated heart rate and pupil diameter, accompanied by frequent and unstable control adjustments, reflecting a high-arousal, high-load control mode. Fatigue was characterised by reduced heart rate and eyelid opening, prolonged response times, and diminished operational activity, indicating hypoarousal and inhibited control. Mind-wandering showed an intermediate pattern, with moderate physiological activation but unstable behavioural rhythms, suggesting reduced task engagement rather than extreme arousal modulation. These findings indicate that attentional disruptions impair driving stability through distinct arousal- and resource-related mechanisms. The integration of behavioural and physiological measures supports a multimodal approach to driver state assessment.