Engineering Nanomaterials for the Treatment of Intervertebral Disc Degeneration: From Application to Therapeutic Mechanisms

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD) is a leading cause of low back pain, affecting a large population and exerting a substantial burden on the healthcare system worldwide. Conventional therapeutic approaches, including conservative management and surgical intervention, predominantly focus on relieving pain and symptoms rather than targeting the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, which often leads to limited long-term effectiveness. With advancements in nanotechnology and regenerative medicine, nanomaterial-assisted therapies introduce a new paradigm for IVDD treatment. Preclinical studies demonstrate promising disease-modifying outcomes using these innovative approaches. In this review, the latest developments in nanomaterials, particularly nanoparticles and nanocomposite hydrogels, within the context of IVDD treatment, are summarized, with emphasis on the enhanced biological performance achieved by engineering approaches such as composition regulation, structural design, and surface modification. In addition, the current advances are outlined in understanding the therapeutic mechanisms of nanomaterials for the treatment of IVDD, while addressing the opportunities and challenges associated with their development and clinical translation.