The role of noncoding RNAs in bacterial immunity

HighlightsNoncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) have emerged as pivotal players in bacteria–phage conflicts.Many bacterial immune systems depend on ncRNAs for both structure and function.ncRNAs are key regulators of bacterial immune responses.Phages use ncRNAs to counteract bacterial defenses.AbstractThe evolutionary arms race between bacteria and phages has driven the development of diverse anti-phage defense mechanisms. Recent studies have identified noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) as key players in bacteria–phage conflicts, including CRISPR-Cas, toxin–antitoxin (TA), and reverse transcriptase (RT)-based defenses; however, our understanding of their roles in immunity is still emerging. In this review, we explore the multifaceted roles of ncRNAs in bacterial immunity, offering insights into their contributions to defense and anti-defense mechanisms, their influence on immune regulatory networks, and potential biotechnological applications. Finally, we highlight key outstanding questions in the field to spark future research directions.