Ultrasonic synthesis of metal-organic frameworks: mechanistic insights, structural modulation, and industrial prospects

The widespread industrial adoption of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) is hindered by limitations inherent to conventional syntheses, such as high energy demands, reliance on toxic solvents, and poor scalability. This comprehensive review establishes ultrasonic synthesis (US) as a green and efficient alternative, systematically analyzing the fundamental mechanisms by which ultrasonic cavitation governs MOFs nucleation and growth kinetics, enabling rapid reactions, reduced crystal dimensions, and tailored defect densities. Critical advances in structural control strategies are examined, particle size/morphology optimization through US parameters; defect engineering for active site/pore functionality enhancement; and crystal facet regulation synergized with surface engineering. Breakthrough applications of US-synthesized MOFs are highlighted across domains: enhanced catalysis (electro-, photo-, enzyme); superior molecular recognition (gas adsorption/separation, water purification); high-capacity electrodes (supercapacitors, batteries); and targeted drug delivery/biosensing. Prospects for industrial scale-up of US-synthesized MOFs are analyzed. Persistent challenges in acoustic field uniformity and defect-property predictability are noted. Future perspectives emphasize in situ characterization and AI-guided optimization to unlock MOFs potential. By linking fundamental insights with practical applications, this review guides the development of high-performance MOFs for industry. We underscore US synthesis as a transformative platform for MOFs industrialization, aligning with UN Sustainable Development Goals through sustainable, cost-effective manufacturing. • Acoustic cavitation mechanisms and parameter effects on MOF nucleation, growth, and defects. • Ultrasonic control of MOF morphology, porosity, and defect density. • Enhanced performance in catalysis, gas storage, sensing, and energy storage. • Green advantages: rapid, energy-efficient, reduced solvent usage. • Industrial scale-up challenges, opportunities, and future directions.