Adipose, bone and muscle tissues as new endocrine organs: role of reciprocal regulation for osteoporosis and obesity development

Abstract The belief that obesity is protective against osteoporosis has recently been revised. In fact, the latest epidemiologic and clinical studies show that a high level of fat mass, but also reduced muscle mass, might be a risk factor for osteoporosis and fragility fractures. Furthermore, increasing evidence seems to indicate that different components such as myokines, adipokines and growth factors, released by both fat and muscle tissues, could play a key role in the regulation of skeletal health and in low bone mineral density and, thus, in osteoporosis development. This review considers old and recent data in the literature to further evaluate the relationship between fat, bone and muscle tissue.