Empathic chimpanzees: A proposal of the levels of emotional and cognitive processing in chimpanzee empathy

Abstract Chimpanzees are arguably capable of empathizing with others' emotional states. Understanding emotional states is closely associated with understanding non-emotional mental states, thus, with Theory of Mind. Chimpanzees are probably able to represent some, but not all of the mental states grasped by adult humans. However, whether and how they understand another's emotional states is unknown, since the level of cognitive and emotional processing in chimpanzee empathy has not been addressed in detail. We propose a model for chimpanzee empathy, using the development of empathy in humans as a comparative viewpoint. Human empathy develops gradually with increasing cognitive complexity. In the first developmental stages the following levels can be distinguished: emotional contagion in neonates, transition from egocentric to veridical empathy during the second year of life, and finally cognitive empathy at 3 to 4 years of age. The current evidence suggests that chimpanzees are capable of emotional contagion, may be capable of veridical empathy, but probably do not achieve cognitive empathy. Thus, we propose that chimpanzee empathy operates on a continuum from egocentric, to quasi-egocentric, to veridical empathy. We evaluate evidence for this hypothesis and discuss possible ways to test it. Keywords: ChimpanzeeCognitionEmpathyTheory of Mind Lucie Burgers Foundation for Comparative Behaviour Research, Arnhem, the Netherlands, and the Academy of Finland are thanked for financial support (to SEK). We thank William McGrew, Lucie Salwiczek, Maaike Kempes, Mieke Ketelaar, Berry Spruijt, and two anonymous reviewers for insightful comments that greatly improved the earlier versions of this manuscript.