Simulation of spatial and temporal variation of nitrate leaching in the vadose zone of alluvial regions on a large regional scale

Excessive use of fertilizers presents a significant threat to groundwater safety. To mitigate nitrate leaching and ensure the sustainable utilization of groundwater resources, it is crucial to quantify the spatial heterogeneity of nitrogen leaching and its drivers. Therefore, accurate modeling of deep nitrate leaching at large regional scales is necessary. In this study, we have created a computational framework to analyze the transport of unsaturated zone water and nitrate at a regional scale. The framework is based on a process-oriented, watershed-scale computational model that segments the study area into a grid system, with each grid modeled using Richards-based advection-diffusion equations for water and solutes. The research model estimated nitrate nitrogen leaching, accumulation, and denitrification in the vadose zone of agricultural fields in the Baiyangdian watershed, which is a typical agricultural region with complex land use and soil deposition conditions in the North China Plain. The results showed that there were significant spatial differences in nitrate N leaching, denitrification and accumulation with values of 0–388 kg/ha/year, 30–177 kg/ha/year and 75–4778 kg/ha. Groundwater recharge in the wheat/maize, vegetable, and cotton area exhibited a negative correlation with nitrate N accumulation while showing a positive correlation with nitrate N leaching. Nitrate nitrogen distribution indicated spatial heterogeneity, attributable mainly to the heterogeneity in soil texture, structure, and land use. With nitrate nitrogen leaching and denitrification levels reaching 327–388 kg/ha/year and 133–175 kg/ha/year, respectively, vegetable fields pose a direct threat to groundwater. Meanwhile, wheat/maize fields showed the greatest nitrate nitrogen accumulation, ranging from 624 to 4778 kg/ha. This excessive buildup of nitrate in these fields presents a potential hazard to groundwater quality. Soil texture in the root zone had a greater influence on the amount of nitrate leaching and denitrification than soil texture below the root zone. Deeper soil texture (>2 m) was found to mainly control total nitrate accumulation in the vadose zone. To assess nitrate leaching, denitrification, and accumulation at a regional scale within the deep vadose zone, a process-oriented model was developed, considering the intricate associations among land usage, soil texture, and biochemical reactions.