Human milk oligosaccharides shape small intestinal microbiota and epithelial transcriptional profile during early life in mice

), along with increased immunomodulatory metabolites such as tricin and baicalein. Correlation network analysis revealed HMO-specific small intestinal "microbiota-metabolite-immune" axes, wherein microbial changes were strongly associated with metabolite profiles, which in turn correlated with the expression of small intestinal immune-related genes as well as serum inflammatory cytokines. This study demonstrates that HMOs can modulate the small intestinal microbiota and epithelial transcription in a structure-specific manner in pups.