Amelioration of diet-induced hyperglycemia by wheat peptides in a multi-target manner: integrated modulation of inflammation, lipid metabolism, gut microbiota, and DPP-IV inhibition

) normalized glycemic levels. Collectively, WP exerts hypoglycemic effects through potentially synergistic mechanisms: (i) suppression of inflammation, (ii) restoration of functional lipid and tryptophan metabolic pathways, (iii) modulation of the gut microbiota toward a beneficial profile, and (iv) DPP-IV inhibition by structurally optimized peptides. These findings highlight WP's therapeutic potential for metabolic syndrome, underscoring its utility as a multifaceted intervention for metabolic dysregulation.