Functional nanomaterials based opto-electrochemical sensors for the detection of gonadal steroid hormones

Nowadays, steroid hormonal analysis becomes important in maintaining reproduction, metabolism, growth, endocrine function and environmental applications, as they are concerned with immunological effects, developmental and cancer-causing substances. The review provides a brief description on steroids with particular emphasis on sexual steroid hormones (gonads) and their importance for determination. The review also describes different recognition elements such as antibodies, aptamers, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) and enzymatic pathways in the determination of steroid hormones. In addition, this manuscript describes on different biosensing technologies used for monitoring steroid hormones and the progress achieved with the emerging carbonaceous nanomaterials for sensitivity, selectivity, excellent stability, reproducibility enhancement in detection methods due to the large surface area and excellent optical and electric conductivity. Finally, the latest trend on steroid hormones and their methods of detecting trace levels in complex environments was examined, along with existing challenges and future prospects in their analysis.