Historical roots of modern neurosurgical cadaveric research practices: dissection, preservation, and vascular injection techniques

Because of the complexity of the brain and its structures, anatomical knowledge is fundamental in neurosurgery. Anatomical dissection, body preservation, and vascular injection remain essential for training, teaching, and refining surgical techniques. This article explores the historical development of these practices and provides the contextual background of modern neurosurgical cadaveric brain models. Body preservation has ancient beginnings, evident in the Chinchorro mummifications and Egyptian embalming. However, brain preservation techniques for education were scarce until the beginning of the Renaissance in Europe. At the University of Bologna in the 13th century, occasional dissections were performed only in winter because of the lack of preservation techniques. Pope Sixtus IV's 1482 papal bull (official decree) formalized and expanded the use of dissection in medical education, leading to an explosion in anatomical studies. This surge brought advances in body preservation, such as soaking bodies in vinegar and distilled liquors. In subsequent centuries, Andreas Vesalius and Charles Bell advanced brain anatomical techniques and knowledge, combining novel illustrations and instruction. To better understand brain vasculature, Richard Lower developed vascular injection techniques using india ink and spirits of wine, leading to the 1664 description of the circle of Willis by Thomas Willis. In 1868, August Hofmann synthesized formaldehyde, markedly improving tissue preservation. Later, William Kruse introduced latex in 1939, and Sidney Sobin introduced silicone in 1965 for vascular studies. These advancements laid the foundation for modern neurosurgical cadaveric studies, many remaining relevant today.