Effect of Surface Electron Trapping and Small Polaron Formation on the Photocatalytic Efficiency of Copper(I) and Copper(II) Oxides

Cu2O, CuO, and mixed phase Cu2O/CuO represent promising candidates for photoelectrochemical H2 evolution due to their strong visible light absorption, earth-abundance, and chemical stability. However, the photoelectrochemical efficiency in these materials remains far below the theoretical limit, largely due to poorly understood surface electron dynamics. These dynamics depend on defect states, such as Cu atom vacancies and phase boundaries, which control electron trapping, charge carrier separation, and recombination. In this work, we study the photoinduced electron and hole dynamics at the surface of various Cu oxides using ultrafast extreme ultraviolet reflection–absorption (XUV-RA) spectroscopy. In Cu2O we find that photoexcitation occurs as electron promotion from primarily Cu 3d valence band to Cu 4s conduction band states compared to O 2p valence band to Cu 4s conduction band states in CuO. In catalysts with a significant concentration of Cu vacancies, we observe fast electron trapping to the Cu 3d defect band occurring in less than 100 fs. In contrast, photoexcited electrons in phase pure CuO do not trap to midgap states; rather these electrons form small polarons within approximately 500 fs. Photoelectrochemical measurements of these catalysts show that Cu vacancy-mediated electron trapping correlates with a significant loss of photocurrent. Together, these results provide a detailed picture of the defect states and associated ultrafast carrier dynamics that govern the photocatalytic efficiency in widely studied Cu2O and CuO photocatalysts.