Unravelling charge carrier separation mechanism in Ag/β-BaTi 2 O 5 heterostructures for high-efficiency photocatalysis: a synergistic study combining Kelvin probe force microscopy and density functional theory

nanorods to Ag nanoparticles driven by the built-in electric field under illumination. The catalyst also demonstrates excellent cycling stability (∼86% efficiency after 6 cycles) and degradation versatility towards Rhodamine B, tetracycline, and levofloxacin. This work provides in-depth mechanistic insights for sustainable wastewater treatment using noble metal-modified Ba-Ti-based photocatalysts.